Behind the Numbers: the Hidden Inequalities of Women’s Work in Italy

The recent preview of the CNEL-Istat report on female employment, titled “Il lavoro delle donne tra ostacoli e opporunità”(Women’s Work Between Obstacles and Opportunities”), paints a far from encouraging picture. Although women’s labor is recognized as an essential component for economic and social development, women in Italy continue to face pervasive and systemic obstacles in accessing the labor market, remaining employed, advancing in their careers, and balancing work and personal life. The country still displays the lowest female employment rate in the EU.

Slow and insufficient employment growth in the face of deep gaps

Despite a positive trend in the labor market in the first half of 2024, with increased employment and decreased female unemployment and inactivity, this numerical growth is seriously overshadowed and nearly irrelevant when compared to the persistent and massive gap with the rest of the European Union. In the third quarter of 2024, the female employment rate in Italy was a full 12.6 percentage points lower than the EU average—the lowest among all twenty-seven member states. The gender gap in employment rate is nearly double the EU average (17.4 points vs. 9.1 points), the highest value among European countries.

Even more concerning are the significant territorial disparities: in Southern Italy, the female employment rate is just over one-third of that in the North and Center. Additionally, 71.3% of the increase in the number of employed women is driven by women over 50, indicating that the growth is not addressing the challenges of female youth employment.

Work vulnerability: a condition imposed, not chosen

The report highlights a shocking higher work vulnerability among women. While about seven out of ten employed men enjoy standard employment (permanent employees or self-employed with employees), only just over half of employed women (53.9%) fall into this category. Nearly a quarter of working women—about 2.5 million—experience some form of vulnerability, compared to 13.8% of men. The main driver of this gap is involuntary part-time work, which affects an astonishing 8.6% of women compared to just 2.5% of men.

Nearly a third of working women are in part-time roles, a percentage that rises to 41% among working mothers aged 25–34. In over 50% of cases, mothers in part-time work cite the need to balance family and work responsibilities as the main reason. A significant proportion (42.1%) work part-time because they could not find full-time work. Work vulnerability is more common among young women, those in Southern Italy, women with low education levels, and foreign nationals.

Motherhood and family burden: the “child penalty” that destroys careers

The impact of motherhood on women’s careers in Italy is dramatic and persistent. Mothers in couples have a significantly lower employment rate compared to single women and to all men, whether single or fathers in couples. In 2023, the employment rate of mothers in couples (aged 15–64) stood at 57.2%, almost 30 percentage points lower than that of fathers in couples (86.3%). This “child penalty” not only drastically reduces the likelihood of finding a job after childbirth, but it also has lasting effects, contributing significantly to the gender employment gap. Eliminating maternity-related penalties could, by 2040, increase the female employment rate by 6.5 percentage points—only 38% of the current gap.

The family burden causes many women to completely withdraw from the workforce, especially those with preschool-age children. Among non-working women, over 7.8 million are inactive (63.5% of all inactive people aged 15–64), with the largest group being mothers in couples (38.6%). Most inactive mothers with children do not seek work due to family responsibilities (62.2%), a reason cited by only 4.8% of fathers. These figures reflect the patriarchal structure of the Italian family, where women’s unpaid domestic and caregiving labor hinders their emancipation. Italy ranks third in Europe for the share of male single-earner couples (25.2% vs. the EU average of 16.1%), a model most common among couples with children.

The chronic lack of early childhood services, especially nurseries and pre-kindergarten classes, makes returning to work even harder. Availability is scarce—especially in Southern Italy—while family demand is rising, leading to waitlists and overwhelmed facilities. Additionally, fathers in Italy make extremely limited use of parental leave, partly due to a system that is less generous than those in other European countries.

The accompanying chart shows a comparison of the average female employment rate (ages 20–49) according to Eurostat data. (Source:https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/metadata/en/lfst_hh_esms.htm)

Education and careers: the unbreakable glass ceiling

Women in Italy are, on average, more educated than men, yet this greater investment in education does not translate into a labor market advantage. Labor market return indicators are generally worse for women, and Italy continues to show a significant female employment disadvantage at all education levels compared to the rest of Europe.

From the early stages of education, girls tend to choose university majors linked to lower-paying, more humanistic professions, contributing to the wage gap from their first job. Although women made up a majority of new university enrollees (55.5% in 2022/2023), only 20.3% enrolled in STEM fields (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics). Female representation is particularly low in Computer Science (15.1% women) and Engineering (just over 24%). Although Italy surpasses the EU in overall female STEM enrollment, this is mainly due to higher numbers in natural sciences, mathematics, and statistics—not in key fields like computer science and engineering.

One reason for this educational channeling is the early societal pressure that discourages girls from pursuing scientific fields, which are stereotypically perceived as male. The phenomenon of horizontal segregation persists and has even worsened in recent years. About half of all female employment is concentrated in just 21 professions (e.g., secretaries, sales clerks, caregivers, nurses, cleaners), compared to 53 professions for men. This concentration in lower-status or less career-advancing jobs forms a significant barrier.

The glass ceiling remains unbroken. Women are still underrepresented in leadership positions, both in politics and in the public and private sectors. Although the share of women on the boards of publicly traded companies has grown thanks to legislative intervention (43.1% in 2023), the percentage of female CEOs is only 2.9% in Italy, compared to the EU average of 7.8%. Only 28.8% of active businesses in 2022 were run by women, and these tend to be smaller and employ fewer people.

Women’s average wages remain significantly lower than those of men, with a gap of over €6,000 annually, largely due to the higher incidence of part-time work among women. Two out of three women experienced at least one year of low annual pay between 2015 and 2022, and nearly one in three earned low hourly wages.

Policy implications: the urgent need for deep structural reform

Handling the deep gender imbalances in the Italian labor market requires more than minor adjustments: it demands a comprehensive structural approach, supported by a clear and resolute political and societal will. One of the most urgent priorities is to dismantle cultural barriers that still influence girls’ educational choices, steering them toward less remunerative and traditionally “feminine” fields. A profound shift in societal narratives is needed—one that promotes diverse role models and challenges the implicit stereotypes embedded in family, school, and workplace expectations. At the same time, strengthening family support policies is essential. Services for early childhood, such as nurseries and pre-kindergarten classes, remain limited, especially in Southern Italy, heavily penalising female employment. Parental leave also needs a thorough overhaul: only broader and incentivised use by fathers can help rebalance caregiving responsibilities, still disproportionately shouldered by women. Equally urgent is the need to rethink the tax and welfare system, which often penalises female work, particularly when women are second earners. A fiscal rebalancing is needed to encourage female participation in the workforce without sacrificing redistributive goals. Another key area is working conditions: creating more flexible, genuinely family-friendly work environments and increasing transparency on gender pay gaps are critical steps to strengthening women’s bargaining power and supporting their professional growth. Finally, the climb toward top positions remains hindered by a persistent glass ceiling. To ensure a stronger female presence in middle and senior management, corrective measures such as quotas may be necessary—measures capable of unlocking opportunities that are currently blocked.

Addressing these disparities is not only an ethical imperative—it is also a development strategy. The Bank of Italy estimates that a 10% increase in women’s participation in the labor market—enough to align with the European average—would lead to an equivalent increase in GDP in the long term. Ignoring these inequalities means not only perpetuating a historical injustice but also forsaking an economic and social potential that Italy can no longer afford to waste.

Elisa Paggetti

References:

Bertocchi, G., & Boeri, T. (2024, April 26). Tackling gender gaps in the Italian labour market: Evidence and policy implications. CEPR VoxEU.

CNEL. (2025). Rapporto sul mercato del lavoro 2025. Consiglio Nazionale dell’Economia e del Lavoro.

Conflavoro PMI. (2025, March 12). CNEL 2025: Occupazione, Sud e donne i nodi principali del mercato del lavoro italiano.

Doppia Difesa. (2023, November 30). Lavoro delle donne: il Rapporto Istat-Cnel fotografa il gender gap nel mercato del lavoro italiano.

ISTAT & CNEL. (2025, March). Rapporto sul lavoro 2024: Donne e mercato del lavoro. Istituto Nazionale di Statistica.

The Gender Data Gap: Understanding What’s Missing

I consider myself a multi-passionate professional working in data, with a growing interest in coaching. While I’ve always appreciated the clarity and structure of data, I’ve become increasingly curious about people: how they think, make decisions, and grow, so I’ve started to explore that through coaching.

These two paths come together in my work, especially in using data to support inclusion and visibility. I’ve mentored at a UN Women datathon in Albania and recently spoke at the Women in Data Flagship Event in London, where I discussed how data and AI can help uncover gender disparities in healthcare.

I’m particularly interested in how data can be used not just to inform, but to challenge bias and create space for underrepresented voices.

In the digital age, data plays a central role in how we design services, allocate resources, and make decisions that shape our societies. We rely on data to build technology, improve healthcare, understand economies, and address social challenges. But what happens when this data doesn’t reflect everyone equally?

This is the core issue at the heart of the gender data gap, a term that refers to the lack of accurate, complete, and gender-inclusive data across many fields. This gap is not just a technical limitation. It can directly influence the effectiveness and fairness of decisions that affect millions of lives.

Why the Gender Data Gap Matters

A recent report by McKinsey & Company, Closing the Women’s Health Gap: A $1 Trillion Opportunity in Women’s Health, highlights the economic and human potential that remains untapped due to systemic gaps in how data is collected and used—particularly in healthcare. The report draws attention to the fact that many common health conditions, such as cardiovascular or autoimmune diseases, affect women differently, yet medical research often defaults to male-centred models.

These differences are not always acknowledged in clinical studies, resulting in data that treats women’s symptoms as “atypical” or less urgent. This can lead to under-diagnosis, delayed treatment, and lower-quality care. The report estimates that addressing these gaps could lead to significant improvements in health outcomes and generate substantial value for societies and economies.

This example illustrates a broader issue: when data doesn’t include diverse perspectives and experiences, the solutions we create may be incomplete or ineffective.

Understanding the Roots of the Gap

To address the gender data gap, it is essential to understand where it comes from. In many cases, several interconnected factors contribute to the issue:

1. Bias in Data and Systems
Bias can occur unintentionally when data reflects historical inequalities or when algorithms are trained on unbalanced datasets. If systems are built on biased data, they risk reinforcing existing disparities.

2. Underrepresentation
In fields where women and gender-diverse individuals are underrepresented—such as STEM or leadership roles—the available data may not capture their experiences accurately. This leads to conclusions that may not apply universally.

3. Social and Cultural Barriers
Real-world inequalities, including access to education, employment, or healthcare, often limit participation. These structural barriers can result in missing data or skewed datasets that do not reflect the full population.

4. Gaps in Data Collection
In many cases, data related to gender is either not collected or is collected in overly simplistic ways. This reduces the ability to perform meaningful analysis and can make certain issues invisible in public or private decision-making.

Towards More Inclusive and Accurate Data

Closing the gender data gap is not just a matter of fairness—it is a question of quality and effectiveness. Inclusive data leads to more informed policies, better-designed technologies, and more equitable outcomes.

There are several ways to begin improving how we approach data from a gender perspective:

• Design inclusive data collection practices
Ensure that data gathering reflects the diversity of the population and is sensitive to different gender identities and experiences.

• Use comparative analysis
Breaking down indicators—such as access to education, healthcare, or financial services—by gender can reveal important patterns and disparities.

• Rely on global benchmarks and research
Reports like the Global Gender Gap Report by the World Economic Forum offer valuable insights and help contextualise national or local data.

• Promote transparency and accountability
Institutions and organisations can help by being clear about how their data is collected, categorised, and used.

• Support data-driven policymaking
Accurate gender data is essential for developing laws, initiatives, and programs that promote equal opportunities in all areas of life.

A Shared Responsibility

The gender data gap is a shared challenge that requires collaboration across disciplines—data science, public policy, healthcare, education, and beyond. Recognising the gap is only the first step. To address it, we must commit to developing tools, methods, and practices that reflect the full reality of the world we live in.

By building awareness and sharing knowledge, we can contribute to a more inclusive and informed future—one where data works for everyone.

Isabella Renzetti

My name is Daniela and this is my path off the beaten track

If you had asked me at sixteen what I wanted to be when I grew up, I probably would have said: “a writer.” I loved reading, I would lose myself in novels, and science, to me, belonged to a different universe. One I watched from afar, with a mix of curiosity and fear. There weren’t many women scientists in the textbooks, and I didn’t know any “Daniela” in a white lab coat.

And yet, here I am: Professor of Clinical Pathology, head of the Unit of Laboratory Oncology Diagnostics at Federico II, researcher, lecturer, and—yes—still a woman who loves books. Only now, I also read scientific articles and write more papers than short stories.

My journey hasn’t been one of straight lines. At first, getting a degree was more of a challenge than a calling. The early years were incredibly tough: endless lectures, difficult exams, and the constant feeling that I had to prove I was “enough.”
Enough competent, enough strong, enough “technical” for a world that often seemed to operate solely on male standards.

I had no female role models. But I had a tenacious instinct. And a deep belief: science isn’t just numbers or protocols. It’s also empathy, intuition, and attention to detail. It’s about listening to people, not just data. And on this ground, I finally began to flourish.

I discovered the clinical potential of cancer biomarkers. That’s when I realized science isn’t just math—it’s humanity. From that moment on, I never stopped: I’ve published over 150 scientific papers, gathered thousands of citations in international publications, and received awards that still surprise and honour me to this day. Every recognition feels like a gentle touch on the shoulder of that girl who once didn’t feel “good enough.”

But my restless soul was seeking more. It sought movement, impact, transformation. That’s how my commitment to innovation was born. I founded two university spin-offs, Elicadea and Robosan, which conduct pioneering research in advanced diagnostics and laboratory medicine automation. These are initiatives where science steps outside the academic halls and becomes real solutions for real people.

These projects embody everything: vision, risk, passion, and collaboration with young researchers who remind me every day why I chose this path.

In 2019, I also had the privilege of being selected by the U.S. Consulate in Naples to participate in the International Visitor Leadership Program (IVLP), the most prestigious professional exchange program in the U.S.—a unique experience where I got to connect with innovators and leaders from all over the world. It was one of those moments that makes you say: “Okay, I’m doing it. And I can do even more.”

And then there’s my commitment to women. Upon returning from the IVLP, I launched in Italy—in collaboration with the U.S. Department of State—the Academy for Women Entrepreneurs program, aimed at providing women with entrepreneurial ideas the knowledge, resources, and network to launch or scale successful ventures.

I work to create spaces where women can express themselves, grow, and feel legitimized in building their own path—even when it’s uncomfortable, unconventional, off the beaten track. Because I know what it’s like to be the only woman in a technical meeting, to feel judged more for the tone of your voice than the content of your ideas. But I also know how powerful sisterhood can be.
Women lifting each other up can truly make this world a better place.

Today, when I walk into the lab or step into a classroom, I don’t just bring my titles, my papers, my patents. I bring all my versions of self: the insecure girl, the passionate scientist, the professor who wants to open doors—not close them.

And if there’s one thing I’ve learned, one thing I’d shout to every young woman stepping into science or innovation, it’s this: There is no single way to be a woman.
You can be creative, emotional, pragmatic, dreamy, rational, and deeply human—all at once. You don’t have to choose who to be. You can be it all.

My motto?
“You don’t have to fit the mold. You can create a new one.”

And if I’m here today, it’s also because I met women and men who believed in me. Now, my mission is to do the same for others. Because truly, we rise by lifting each other.

Daniela Terracciano, Professor of Clinical Pathology and Researcher – University of Naples Federico II

Being a Woman in Robotics and Automation

Working in robotics and automation as a woman means constantly challenging the status quo. In an industry still predominantly male, we often find ourselves as the only women in the room. This comes with both challenges and opportunities. The challenge of proving our expertise beyond biases, and the opportunity to drive change through innovation and leadership.

Robotics is about precision, problem-solving, and creativity, all qualities that know no gender. The more women step into this field, the more we reshape perceptions, paving the way for a more inclusive and diverse industry.

Throughout my journey, I have faced skepticism and mistrust, but I have also built a career based on competence, passion, resilience and perseverance.

Thankfully, also incredible support from mentors and peers who believe in the power of diversity.

It is also crucial for male leaders to recognize that men and women approach problems differently. Understanding these differences is essential to fostering an environment where diverse perspectives thrive.

Representation matters, and being a woman in automation is not just about working with machines; it’s about designing the future of technology and ensuring it serves everyone. It’s about inspiring the next generation to see robotics not as a male-dominated space, but as a limitless field where talent and vision define success.

Irene Vetrò, EduTech Specialist Engineer, Donne 4.0 Ambassador